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Comparative linguistics describes the similarities between various languages and the laws of systematic change, which allow the reconstruction of ancestral speech (see Indo-European studies). The "Paleolithic Continuity Paradigm" is a hypothesis suggesting that the Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) can be traced back to the Upper Paleolithic, several millennia earlier than the Chalcolithic or at the most Neolithic estimates in other scenarios of Proto-Indo-European origins. "Potapovo Burial Ground of the Indo-Iranic Tribes on the Volga" (1994). [320] It is probably better termed an archaeological complex or archaeological horizon. [23] Anthony notes that those Semitic borrowings may also have occurred through the advancement of Anatolian farmer cultures via the Danube valley into the steppe zone. "[132] They further note that this lends support to the Indo-Hittite hypothesis, according to which both proto-Anatolian and proto-Indo-European split-off from a common mother language "no later than the 4th millennium BCE. One explanation for this is that a militarily powerful, nomadic Indo-Aryan elite settled in Mitanni, and came to politically dominate the indigenous population. (eds.). The king, who liked his entertainments, took along a bevy of dancing courtesans and musicians, in violation of the ascetic traditions of the pilgrimage. During the study, the Reich lab had divided up its bone-powder samples, sending one portion to the carbon-14-dating laboratory at Penn State. Lamberg-Karlovsky, "Archaeology and Language: The Indo-Iranians", Koenraad Elst (May 10, 2016), Koenraad Elst: I am not aware of any governmental interest in correcting distorted history, Swarajya Magazine, 20 languages with the largest numbers of native speakers, alternative Proto-Indo-European original homelands, Portraits of Periodical Offering of Liang, Neolithic populations in western Europe declined, hypothetically closer relationship between Greek and Armenian, Mitanni Indo-Aryan linguistic influences, proposals for the origins of the Indo-European languages, New Branch Added to European Family Tree. Gimbutas defined the Kurgan culture as composed of four successive periods, with the earliest (Kurgan I) including the Samara and Seroglazovo cultures of the DnieperVolga region in the Copper Age (early 4th millennium BC). On average, a Black person in America has an ancestry that is around eighty per cent African and twenty per cent European. [web 4] The Indo-European family includes most of the major current languages of Europe, of the Iranian plateau, of the northern half of the Indian Subcontinent, and of Sri Lanka, with kindred languages also formerly spoken in parts of ancient Anatolia and of Central Asia. The Sinologist Edwin G. Pulleyblank has suggested that the Yuezhi, the Wusun, the Dayuan, the Kangju and the people of Yanqi, could have been Tocharian-speaking. The (late) Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) is the linguistic reconstruction of a common ancestor of the Indo-European languages, as spoken by the Proto-Indo-Europeans after the split-off of Anatolian and Tocharian. To the north is a vast wall of Himalayan peaks, some of the highest in the world. Nanda Devi cursed the kingdom, unleashing drought and disaster, and infesting the milk and rice with maggots. AP Human Geography: Chapter 5 Vocabulary Flashcards | Quizlet ", "[] our results level the playing field between the two leading hypotheses [the Steppe hypotheses and the Anatolian hypothesis] of Indo-European origins, as we now know that both the Early Neolithic and the Late Neolithic were associated with major migrations. [287] As a result of a modern diaspora, there are also Albanian speakers elsewhere in those countries and in other parts of the world, including Scandinavia, Switzerland, Germany, Austria and Hungary, United Kingdom, Turkey, Australia, New Zealand, Netherlands, Singapore, Brazil, Canada, and the United States. Both researchers caution against reading too much into genetic evidence alone. While there, he discussed someday collaborating on a more detailed study of the Roopkund bones with the centers director, Lalji Singh, and Kumarasamy Thangaraj, a geneticist who had headed up the previous DNA analysis. The Illyrian tribes never collectively regarded themselves as 'Illyrians', and it is unlikely that they used any collective nomenclature for themselves. [250] Some linguists, however, reject the Balto-Slavic theory, believing that Baltic and Slavic languages evolved independently from Proto-Baltic and Proto-Slavic respectively. According to Anthony, the development of the Proto-Indo-European cultures started with the introduction of cattle at the Pontic-Caspian steppes. However, Eric P. Hamp suggests that Phrygian was related to Italo-Celtic in a hypothetical "Northwest Indo-European" group. From there, the route follows steep ridgelines and leads past an ancient stone shrine, festooned with bronze bells and tridents and containing a statue of the elephant deity Ganesha. Indo-European migrations - Wikipedia In 2008, David Reich, a geneticist at Harvard, made the first of many trips to the country, and visited a leading life-science research institution, the Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, in Hyderabad. The bones showed no evidence of battle, ritual suicide, murder, or epidemic disease. When [the] Yamnaya people moved into eastern and western Europe, their genetic signature was very different from what was there before, he explains. [30][82][note 9]. People in the villages below Roopkund had their own explanation, passed down in folk songs and stories. [82][34][note 14] The resulting culture contributed to the Sredny Stog culture,[110] a predecessor of the Yamnaya culture. The Germanic languages are also related to the Baltic and Slavic languages, which in turn share similarities with the Indo-Iranic languages. [note 24][note 25], A Proto-Balto-Slavic language is reconstructable by the comparative method, descending from Proto-Indo-European by means of well-defined sound laws, and out of which modern Slavic and Baltic languages descended. "Notes on Anatolian loanwords in Armenian." The closest match was with people from the Greek island of Crete. [135] According to Anthony, the Old Indic religion probably emerged among Indo-European immigrants in the contact zone between the Zeravshan River (present-day Uzbekistan) and (present-day) Iran. The lake, about a hundred and thirty feet across and ten feet deep, is an emerald jewel nestled in a bowl of rock and ice. The Proto-Indo-Europeans were the speakers of the Proto-Indo-European language (PIE), a reconstructed prehistoric language of Eurasia. It's a straightforward, compelling idea. [131] According to Anthony, if it separated from Proto-Indo-European, it likely did so between 4500 and 3500 BCE. [327] It was "a syncretic mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo-European elements",[327] which borrowed "distinctive religious beliefs and practices"[135] from the BactriaMargiana culture. [312] From the Chinese term Wusun, Beckwith reconstructs the Old Chinese *swin, which he compares to the Old Indo-Aryan avin "the horsemen", the name of the Rigvedic twin equestrian gods. [232], Today the Romance languages, which comprise all languages that descended from Latin, are spoken by more than 800million native speakers worldwide, mainly in the Americas, Europe, and Africa. Invasion versus diffusion scenarios (1980s onward), Alignment with Anatolian hypothesis (2000s), harvnb error: no target: CITEREFAnthony1986 (, harvnb error: no target: CITEREFAnthony1991 (, The New Encyclopdia Britannica, 15th edition, 22:587588, sfn error: no target: CITEREFMallory1991 (, sfn error: no target: CITEREFCavalli-Sforza2000 (, harvnb error: no target: CITEREFPiazzaCavalli-Sforza2006 (, Indogermanisches etymologisches Wrterbuch, "Population genomics of Bronze Age Eurasia", "Genome-wide patterns of selection in 230 ancient Eurasians", "The formation of human populations in South and Central Asia", "An Ancient Harappan Genome Lacks Ancestry from Steppe Pastoralists or Iranian Farmers", "The genomic history of the Iberian Peninsula over the past 8000 years", "The Indo-Europeanization of Europe: the intrusion of steppe pastoralists from south Russia and the transformation of Old Europe", "The Indo-European Homeland from Linguistic and Archaeological Perspectives", Lexikon der indogermanischen Partikeln und Pronominalstmme, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kurgan_hypothesis&oldid=1149228162, Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from July 2021, Articles containing Russian-language text, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, 40003500: The Pit Grave culture (a.k.a. Gimbutas's actual main scenario involved slow accumulation of influence through coercion or extortion, as distinguished from general raiding shortly followed by conquest: One might at first imagine that the economy of argument involved with the Kurgan solution should oblige us to accept it outright. All rights reserved. [112] According to Anthony, the first cattle herders arrived from the Danube Valley at ca. [web 21] During the Viking Age, which began in the 8th century, the North Germanic peoples of Scandinavia migrated throughout Europe, establishing settlements as far as North America. Its long been known that, from around 2500 to 2000 B.C., major new artistic and cultural styles flourished in Western and Central Europe. Nanda Devi was furious at the display of earthly pleasures, and she shoved the dancing girls down into the underworld. The bone in which the cochlea is embedded is the densest in the body, and provides the best source of preserved DNA in ancient remains. According to this model, the Kurgan culture gradually expanded to the entire PonticCaspian steppe, Kurgan IV being identified with the Yamnaya culture of around 3000BC. The generally accepted theory among linguists is that PIE speakers lived about five or six thousand years ago in the fourth millennium BCE in the steppes north of the Black and Caspian seas. [web 10]. [319], Because of the difficulty of identifying the remains of Sintashta sites beneath those of later settlements, the culture was only recently distinguished from the Andronovo culture. Mitanni (Hittite cuneiform KURURUMi-ta-an-ni), also Mittani (Mi-it-ta-ni) or Hanigalbat (Assyrian Hanigalbat, Khanigalbat cuneiform a-ni-gal-bat) or Naharin in ancient Egyptian texts was a Hurrian (non-Indo-European)-speaking state in northern Syria and south-east Anatolia from c.15001300 BCE. [144], Radiocarbon gives dates as early as 3705 BCE on wooden tools and 2874 BCE on human remains for the Afanasievo culture. [137] According to Parpola, the appearance of Indo-European speakers from Europe into Anatolia, and the appearance of Hittite, is related to later migrations of Proto-Indo-European speakers from the Yamna-culture into the Danube Valley at c.2800 BCE,[33][4] which is in line with the "customary" assumption that the Anatolian Indo-European language was introduced into Anatolia somewhere in the third millennium BCE. The set of Iranian-speaking peoples is thus considered a kind of unity, in spite of their distinct lineage identities plus all the factors which may have further differentiated any one group's sense of self.". The Kurgan model is the most widely accepted scenario of Indo-European origins. The Kurgan hypothesis, introduced by Marija Gimbutas in 1956, combines archeology data with that of linguistics to try to locate the original focus of Proto-Indo-Europeans (PIE). [26][1], According to the widely accepted Kurgan hypothesis or Steppe theory, the Indo-European language and culture spread in several stages from the Proto-Indo-European Urheimat in the Eurasian Pontic steppes into Western Europe, Central and South Asia, through folk migrations and so-called elite recruitment. [122] The Samara culture (early 5th millennium BCE),[note 15] north of the Khvalynsk culture, interacted with the Khvalynsk culture,[123] while the archaeological findings seem related to those of the Dniepr-Donets II culture. Over a century later, after learning Sanskrit in India, Sir William Jones detected equivalent correspondences; he described them in his Third Anniversary Discourse to the Asiatic Society in 1786, concluding that all these languages originated from the same source. This idea of PIE and its daughter languages diffusing east and west without mass movement proved popular with archaeologists in the 1970s (the pots-not-people paradigm). The Kurgan hypothesis is the most widely accepted proposal to identify the Proto-Indo-European homeland from which the Indo-European languages spread out (map). It is most closely associated with the late Marija Gimbutas, an archaeologist at the University of California . According to Anthony, the Pre-Yamnaya steppe herders, archaic Proto-Indo-European speakers, spread into the lower Danube valley about 42004000 BCE, either causing or taking advantage of the collapse of Old Europe,[28] their languages "probably included archaic Proto-Indo-European dialects of the kind partly preserved later in Anatolian. Because carbon-14 dating is difficult to interpret for the period between 1650 and 1950, the deaths could have occurred anytime during that span, but with a slightly higher probability in the eighteenth century. Mitanni came to be a regional power after the Hittite destruction of Amorite[329] Babylon and a series of ineffectual Assyrian kings created a power vacuum in Mesopotamia. [6][7] David Anthony states that "Childe (1953:133-38) and Gimbutas (1963) speculated that migrants from the steppe Yamnaya horizon (33002600 BCE) might have been the creators of the Corded Ware culture and carried IE languages into Europe from the steppes. [278] The territory the Illyrians inhabited came to be known as Illyria to Greek and Roman authors, who identified a territory that corresponds to the Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Slovenia, Montenegro, part of Serbia and most of Albania, between the Adriatic Sea in the west, the Drava river in the north, the Morava river in the east and the mouth of the Aoos river in the south. The water is frozen most of the year, so the skeletons and artifacts visible on the lake bed have been kept safe from looters and souvenir hunters. [271], The Dacians spoke the Dacian language, believed to have been closely related to Thracian, but were somewhat culturally influenced by the neighbouring Scythians and by the Celtic invaders of the 4thcentury BCE. Nor was Roopkund a cemetery: most of the individuals were healthy and between eighteen and thirty-five years old. [127], According to Mallory, it is likely that the Anatolians reached the Near East from the north, either via the Balkans or the Caucasus in the 3rd millennium BCE. John Boardman, I.E.S. Her view, known as the Kurgan hypothesisnamed for the distinctive burial mounds that spread west across Europeis now the most widely accepted theory about Indo-European linguistic origins. Myth of the light pigmented "Nordic looking" Proto Indo-Europeans debunked. Most Indo-Europeanists classify Baltic and Slavic languages into a single branch, even though some details of the nature of their relationship remain in dispute[note 23] in some circles, usually due to political controversies. [101][note 13] According to Anthony (2019), a genetic relationship to Uralic is unlikely and cannot be reliably proven; similarities between Uralic and Indo-European would be explained by early borrowings and influence.[82]. [web 17] The Nordic Bronze Age developed from the absorption of the hunter-gatherer Pitted Ware culture (c.3500-2300 BCE) into the agricultural Battle Axe culture (c.2800-2300 BCE),[221][222] which in turn developed from the superimposition of the Corded Ware culture (c.3100-2350 BCE) upon the Funnelbeaker culture (c.4300-2800 BCE) on the North European Plain, adjacent to the north of the Bell Beaker culture (c.28002300 BCE). Some archaeologists would extend the time depth of PIE to the middle Neolithic (5500 to 4500 BCE) or even the early Neolithic (7500 to 5500 BCE), and suggest alternative Proto-Indo-European original homelands. (2018), aDNA studies in Anatolia "show no indication of a large-scale intrusion of a steppe population", but do "fit the recently developed consensus among linguists and historians that the speakers of the Anatolian languages established themselves in Anatolia by gradual infiltration and cultural assimilation. However, given that the glottalic theory never caught on and there was little archaeological support, the Gamkrelidze and Ivanov theory did not gain support until Renfrew's Anatolian theory revived aspects of their proposal.[19]. Their skeletons are a warning to those who would disrespect the goddess. [29], In the 2000s, Alberto Piazza and Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza tried to align the Anatolian hypothesis with the steppe theory. Gimbutas believed that the expansions of the Kurgan culture were a series of essentially-hostile military incursions in which a new warrior culture imposed itself on the peaceful, matrilinear, and matrifocal (but not matriarchal) cultures of "Old Europe" and replaced it with a patriarchal warrior society,[26] a process visible in the appearance of fortified settlements and hillforts and the graves of warrior-chieftains: The process of Indo-Europeanization was a cultural, not a physical, transformation. Create your free account or Sign in to continue. [70], The earliest known chariots have been found in Sintashta burials, and the culture is considered a strong candidate for the origin of the technology, which spread throughout the Old World and played an important role in ancient warfare. 9 (2013), pp. It was the Roopkund B group, a mixture of men and women unrelated to one another, that confounded everyone. Genetic analysis of human remains found in the Himalayas has raised baffling questions about who these people were and why they were there. [164] Evidence from Chinese records indicate the peoples of Central Asia as far west as the Parthian Empire were under the sway of the Yuezhi. This page was last edited on 13 April 2023, at 06:30. We can get a sense of this reign of terror by thinking about what took place when the descendants of those ancient Iberians sailed to the New World, events for which we have ample historical records. [176][70][177], During the Chalcolithic and early Bronze Age, the cultures of Europe derived from Early European Farmers (EEF) were overwhelmed by successive invasions of Western Steppe Herders (WSHs) from the PonticCaspian steppe, who carried about 60% Eastern Hunter-Gatherer (EHG) and 40% Caucasus Hunter-Gatherer (CHG) admixture. They mixed with EHG-people from the northern Volga steppes, forming the Khvalynsk culture, which "might represent the oldest phase of PIE.". It must be understood as a military victory in terms of successfully imposing a new administrative system, language, and religion upon the indigenous groups. The Roopkund A individuals probably died in three or possibly four incidents between 700 and 950 A.D. Your Pun-Divided Attention: How the Brain Processes Wordplay. Vials of this were sent to Harvard and to other labs in India, the United States, and Germany. And theres absolutely no reason to be up there if they werent on the pilgrimage. The idea of a group of eighteenth-century Greeks on a Hindu pilgrimage seemed far-fetched. (2016) further note that "Caucasus hunter-gatherers (CHG) belong to a distinct ancient clade that split from western hunter-gatherers ~45kya, shortly after the expansion of anatomically modern humans into Europe and from the ancestors of Neolithic farmers ~25kya, around the Last Glacial Maximum. [40], The Indo-European eastward expansion in the 2nd millennium BCE had a significant influence on Chinese culture,[148] introducing the chariot,[web 12] horse burials,[web 13][149] the domesticated horse,[148][150] iron technology,[148][web 14] and wheeled vehicles,[151][152][153][154] fighting styles, head-and-hoof rituals, art motifs and myths. Indo-European Origins, Part II: The Nordic, Kurgan, and Anatolian [318] Sintashta settlements are also remarkable for the intensity of copper mining and bronze metallurgy carried out there, which is unusual for a steppe culture. [73][note 5][note 6] Water shortage also had a strong impact in south Asia, "causing the collapse of sedentary urban cultures in south central Asia, Afghanistan, Iran, and India, and triggering large-scale migrations". Anthony argues that proto-Indo European formed mainly from the languages of Eastern European hunter-gatherers with influences from those of Caucasus hunter-gatherers,[100] and suggests that the archaic proto-Indo-European language formed in the Volga Basin (in the Eastern European Steppe). The Hittite military made successful use of chariots. Identifications are made on the basis of how well, if at all, the projected migration routes and times of migration fit the distribution of Indo-European languages, and how closely the sociological model of the original society reconstructed from Proto-Indo-European lexical items fits the archaeological profile. The Medes, Parthians and Persians begin to appear on the western Iranian plateau from c.800 BCE, after which they remained under Assyrian rule for several centuries, as it was with the rest of the peoples in the Near East.
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